A motherboard is the primary circuit board in a computer, which holds many of the crucial components of the system, including the CPU (Central Processing Unit), memory (RAM, or Random-Access Memory), and I/O (Input/Output) interfaces for peripheral devices like keyboards, mice, and screen displays. The motherboard serves as the backbone of the computer, connecting and communicating with all other components to ensure they work together efficiently. It also houses the BIOS (Basic Input/Output System), which initializes and tests hardware devices during the boot process and manages data flow between the system's components and peripherals.

Storage devices are used to store and retrieve system and user data on a computer. There are two popular types of storage devices: traditional Hard Disk Drives (HDDs) and modern Solid State Drives (SSDs). HDDs use spinning magnetic disks (platters) to store data, while SSDs use NAND flash memory, which has no moving parts and offers faster read/write speeds compared to HDDs, at the cost of being more expensive per unit of storage capacity. Both types of storage devices come in various form factors, such as 3.5-inch HDDs for desktop computers and 2.5-inch SSDs for laptops. Storage capacity is typically measured in gigabytes (GB) or terabytes (TB).

The Power Supply Unit (PSU) converts alternating current (AC) from the wallsocket to direct current (DC) required by the internal components of a computer. The PSU is responsible for providing stable and consistent power to all parts of the system, including the motherboard, CPU, RAM, and storage devices. PSUs are rated based on their wattage and efficiency (for example, 80 PLUS certifications), which indicates their ability to convert AC power to DC efficiently and reliably. A high-quality PSU can help ensure the longevity of a computer's components by minimizing potential ripple effects and voltage fluctuations.

The Central Processing Unit (CPU) is the primary component of a computer that performs most of the processing inside the computer system. It interprets and carries out instructions from the hardware and software. The CPU contains the Arithmetic Logical Unit (ALU) and the control unit. The ALU performs arithmetic and logic operations, while the control unit coordinates and manages the overall activity within the CPU, such as fetching, decoding, and executing instructions. CPUs are available in single-core, dual-core, quad-core, and multi-core configurations from different manufacturers, such as Intel and AMD, each offering varying speeds, cache sizes, and levels of performance.

Random Access Memory (RAM) is a type of volatile memory that stores data and machine code currently being used. RAM provides fast read and write access to a computing device, enabling the CPU to retrieve data quickly. It is volatile because it loses its data when the system loses power. RAM comes in two main types - Dynamic RAM (DRAM) and Static RAM (SRAM). DRAM stores data in tiny capacitors that require constant refreshing, while SRAM stores data in flip-flops, providing faster access but at a higher cost. RAM can be upgraded by adding more memory modules, enhancing overall system performance.

A Graphics Processing Unit (GPU) is a specialized electronic circuit that manages image rendering and video output. GPUs offload image rendering computation from the CPU, allowing for smoother multimedia and gaming experiences. Modern GPUs are designed to handle complex images, 3D graphics, and high-definition video with ease. GPU architectures come in two main types - integrated and dedicated. Integrated GPUs share memory with the system's processor, while dedicated GPUs have their own memory. Both AMD and NVIDIA are well-known manufacturers of GPUs, offering varying levels of performance, power requirements, and capabilities.

A Hard Disk Drive (HDD) is a non-volatile storage device that stores digital data on magnetic disks, also called platters, which are coated with magnetic material. Data is read and written by an actuator arm with read/write heads that hover above the rotating disks. HDDs use magnetic storage to retain data even when the power is off. HDDs offer large storage capacities at a relatively low cost but are slower than other storage devices, such as solid-state drives (SSDs). HDDs are used in desktops, servers, and external storage devices like NAS (Network Attached Storage) solutions.

Input/Output (I/O) ports facilitate communication between a computer and external devices, such as keyboards, mice, monitors, and speakers. These ports can transmit data, power, and display signals. Examples of I/O ports include Universal Serial Bus (USB) ports, High-Definition Multimedia Interface (HDMI) ports, DisplayPort, Ethernet, and audio jacks. Some I/O ports are also capable of transferring data at high speeds, such as Thunderbolt 3, which allows for fast transfer rates and can support multiple high-resolution displays. The type and number of I/O ports available on a system depend on the motherboard specifications and design.

BIOS (Basic Input/Output System) and UEFI (Unified Extensible Firmware Interface) are firmware interfaces that initialize and configure hardware components before the operating system loads. BIOS is the older standard and is typically used with legacy devices, while UEFI is the modern standard offering more capabilities and features. Both interfaces are responsible for the Power-On Self-Test (POST), a diagnostic procedure that ensures all essential hardware components are functioning correctly. BIOS uses a text-based interface, whereas UEFI supports a graphical interface and mouse input. UEFI enables faster boot times, improved security features, and support for larger storage devices and system memory. Replacing BIOS, new devices are more likely to use UEFI firmware for hardware initialization.

Networking hardware includes devices and components that allow computers and other devices to communicate and share data over a network. Routers, switches, and hubs are examples of networking devices that facilitate the flow of data between connected systems. Routers connect multiple devices on a local network to the internet, assigning unique IP addresses and managing data traffic. Switches facilitate data transmission across a network by creating dedicated channels for communication between devices. Hubs, now less common, serve a similar purpose but are more limited than switches, as they broadcast data to all connected devices rather than specific communication channels. Wireless Access Points (WAPs) extend the reach of a wireless network, while network interface cards (NICs) allow devices to connect to a network.

Computer cooling solutions are essential for maintaining optimal operating temperatures and preventing overheating. Electronic components, such as processors and graphics cards, generate heat that can cause performance degradation or permanent damage if not adequately managed. There are three main types of cooling solutions: air cooling, liquid cooling, and passive cooling. Air cooling uses fans and heatsinks to dissipate heat produced by computer components. Heatsinks, typically made of aluminum or copper, increase the surface area for effective heat dissipation. Liquid cooling uses water or other coolant fluids in a closed-loop system, consisting of a pump, radiator, and tubing that circulates coolant to absorb and transfer heat away from key components. Passive cooling requires no moving parts and relies on natural convection, heatsinks, or specialized materials to dissipate heat.

Optical drives are devices that read and write data on optical discs, such as CDs, DVDs, and Blu-Ray discs. These drives utilize lasers to read or write data by detecting the surface's pattern of bumps and spaces. Optical drives can have various read and write speeds, and their compatibility depends on the types of discs supported. Although optical media has become less prevalent with the rise of digital content and storage, optical drives still serve a purpose for reading or writing physical media, transferring data, creating backups, or installing software from discs. Some common types of optical drives include CD-ROM, CD-R, CD-RW, DVD-ROM, DVD-R, DVD-RW, Blu-ray-ROM, and Blu-ray-R.

Expansion cards and slots allow users to add functionality, improve performance, or upgrade existing hardware in a computer system. Expansion cards connect to the motherboard through slots, such as Peripheral Component Interconnect (PCI), PCI Express (PCIe), or Industry Standard Architecture (ISA). Examples of expansion cards include network interface cards, graphics cards, sound cards, and additional USB or SATA ports. Each slot type has specific electrical and mechanical characteristics, which determine the compatibility and performance of the expansion card. When installing an expansion card, it is crucial to ensure the card is compatible with the available slot on the motherboard and that the system meets the card’s power requirements.